Home and business networkers looking to buy wireless local area network (WLAN) gear face an array of choices. Many products conform to the 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, or 802.11n wireless standards collectively known as Wi-Fi technologies. Additionally, Bluetooth and various other non Wi-Fi technologies also exist, each also designed for specific networking applications.
This article describes the Wi-Fi and related technologies, comparing and contrasting them to help you make educated network building decisions.
802.11In 1997, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created the first WLAN standard. They called it 802.11 after the name of the group formed to oversee its development. Unfortunately, 802.11 only supported a maximum network bandwidth of 2 Mbps - too slow for most applications. For this reason, ordinary 802.11 wireless products are no longer manufactured.
802.11bIEEE expanded on the original 802.11 standard in July 1999, creating the 802.11b specification. 802.11b supports bandwidth up to 11 Mbps, comparable to traditional Ethernet.
802.11b uses the same unregulated radio signaling frequency (2.4 GHz) as the original 802.11 standard. Vendors often prefer using these frequencies to lower their production costs. Being unregulated, 802.11b gear can incur interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones, and other appliances using the same 2.4 GHz range. However, by installing 802.11b gear a reasonable distance from other appliances, interference can easily be avoided.
Pros of 802.11b - lowest cost; signal range is good and not easily obstructed
Cons of 802.11b - slowest maximum speed; home appliances may interfere on the unregulated frequency band
802.11aWhile 802.11b was in development, IEEE created a second extension to the original 802.11 standard called 802.11a. Because 802.11b gained in popularity much faster than did 802.11a, some folks believe that 802.11a was created after 802.11b. In fact, 802.11a was created at the same time. Due to its higher cost, 802.11a is usually found on business networks whereas 802.11b better serves the home market.
802.11a supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps and signals in a regulated frequency spectrum around 5 GHz. This higher frequency compared to 802.11b shortens the range of 802.11a networks. The higher frequency also means 802.11a signals have more difficulty penetrating walls and other obstructions.
Because 802.11a and 802.11b utilize different frequencies, the two technologies are incompatible with each other. Some vendors offer hybrid 802.11a/b network gear, but these products merely implement the two standards side by side (each connected devices must use one or the other).
Pros of 802.11a - fast maximum speed; regulated frequencies prevent signal interference from other devices
Cons of 802.11a - highest cost; shorter range signal that is more easily obstructed
802.11gIn 2002 and 2003, WLAN products supporting a newer standard called 802.11g emerged on the market. 802.11g attempts to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. 802.11g supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps, and it uses the 2.4 Ghz frequency for greater range. 802.11g is backwards compatible with 802.11b, meaning that 802.11g access points will work with 802.11b wireless network adapters and vice versa.
Pros of 802.11g - fast maximum speed; signal range is good and not easily obstructed
Cons of 802.11g - costs more than 802.11b; appliances may interfere on the unregulated signal frequency
802.11nThe newest IEEE standard in the Wi-Fi category is 802.11n. It was designed to improve on 802.11g in the amount of bandwidth supported by utilizing multiple wireless signals and antennas (called MIMO technology) instead of one.
When this standard is finalized, 802.11n connections should support data rates of over 100 Mbps. 802.11n also offers somewhat better range over earlier Wi-Fi standards due to its increased signal intensity. 802.11n equipment will be backward compatible with 802.11g gear.
Pros of 802.11n - fastest maximum speed and best signal range; more resistant to signal interference from outside sources
Cons of 802.11n - standard is not yet finalized; costs more than 802.11g; the use of multiple signals may greatly interfere with nearby 802.11b/g based networks.
Tuesday, July 8, 2008
What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?
In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
Area Networks
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.
Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.
Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
Wired vs Wireless Networking
Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.
Area Networks
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.
Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.
Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
Wired vs Wireless Networking
Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.
Principles for an Open Broadband Future
The deployment of broadband telecommunications services1 could have as great an impact on society as the appearance of the printing press in the 15th century and television and radio in the 20th. Broadband technologies are bringing about a paradigm shift in how we live our lives. Distance learning, telemedicine, web conferencing, unlimited and uncensored information, feature-rich communications and high-resolution entertainment can all be delivered to consumers over broadband connections at a fraction of the cost and at an order of magnitude faster speed than today.
If the U.S. adopts the right policy framework, emphasizing competition and limited regulation, the growth of broadband technologies can significantly increase and enhance the sharing of knowledge, strengthen our democracy and enhance every individual’s economic empowerment. Our goal should be to ensure that all consumers have access to widespread and competitive broadband services at affordable prices, using a variety of technologies, to permit any commercial or governmental entity to develop new and customer-driven applications and information services, and to allow consumers to enjoy their first amendment rights to have access to and disseminate their own unlimited and uncensored information.
Unfortunately, these objectives are in grave danger. Some recent developments show the country moving in the opposite direction:
Low-income, rural and minority consumers have less access to broadband services than higher-income, urban and white, consumers.2
In most markets, just two providers - the cable company and the telephone company - dominate the provision of broadband services.3
The U.S. ranks 16th worldwide in broadband adoption per 100 inhabitants4, in large part because the prices for broadband services are unaffordably high.5
Unlicensed wireless broadband providers are relegated to a much smaller portion of the electromagnetic spectrum than technology allows.6
Some companies are retaining the authority to build proprietary broadband networks and may restrict or degrade consumers’ access to certain Internet sites or certain applications.7
The FCC has allowed telephone companies to force consumers to buy landline telephone service even when they wish to purchase only broadband service.8
Fifteen states bar or limit municipalities’ ability to build broadband networks.9
These trends demonstrate that the country’s current communications policies are simply inadequate; they provide no assurance that consumers will reap all the benefits of these broadband technologies. Instead, broadband technologies are operating in a policy vacuum. Today, there is no plan to ensure that broadband will be affordable; there are no enforceable rules to ensure that all public broadband networks are open and transparent; there is no plan to maximize the provision of unlicensed wireless broadband services, and there is no guarantee that municipalities have the right to deploy broadband services for their consumers. This policy vacuum creates uncertainty, chills innovation, and depresses both the demand and supply of broadband services and technologies.10
As Congress re-examines the nation’s telecommunications laws, it must do so guided by key principles that will ensure that broadband services are deployed to serve the interests of consumers and the economic interests of the country. Without such principles, there is great danger that any proposed legislation will become a grab bag of special interest benefits, with each corporate interest trying to strengthen its position in the marketplace. Broadband networks must not become closed and under the control of gatekeepers seeking to promote narrow political or corporate agendas. While the legislative process certainly allows companies to advocate for their own interests, it is vitally important that Congress focus first and foremost on the consumer’s interest in broadband networks of the future.
In short, American consumers need a new set of Principles for an Open Broadband Future that will ensure that broadband networks are deployed to maximize consumer welfare. These principles need to address each aspect of the broadband universe - the physical construction of broadband pipes (wireless or wireline), the access to those pipes by consumers, equipment manufacturers, applications developers and content providers, and the use of those pipes to transmit, share and publish information. These principles must walk a fine line: they must be clear and enforceable, so as to stimulate broadband deployment and guarantee consumer access; at the same time they must operate with as light a regulatory touch as possible to avoid burdening network owners with such excessive rules that they lose their incentives to construct these new networks. Setting forth a clear set of principles to guide the development of broadband policy will provide additional certainty to investors, network planners, equipment and application developers, content providers and consumers, so that the broadband future becomes a reality soon.
The overriding goal of these principles can be summarized in one word: openness. If made open and accessible to all Americans, broadband services and applications can ignite new opportunities for innovation, creativity, and economic value for all Americans. Furthermore, safeguarding access to the free flow of information over broadband networks can strengthen our democracy and freedom of expression. Congress’ most important objective should be to ensure that consumers’ rights to access and use broadband networks are preserved and enhanced, to allow the unfettered sharing of knowledge.
This white paper sets out the rationale for the Principles for an Open Broadband Future. Adoption of these principles will promote the deployment of broadband technologies and ensure that they remain open and accessible by the public. These principles should form the foundation of any new effort to re-write the Communications Act in the 109th Congress.
1. Open Competition Among Broadband Providers
*Principles:
a. Every consumer should be able to choose among multiple, competing broadband networks, services, applications and content providers, including municipalities.
b. Government policies should be technology-neutral and should forbear from regulating broadband networks except where necessary to promote competition.*
Every consumer should be able to choose among multiple, competing broadband networks, services, applications and content providers. Eliminating barriers to competitive entry in each of these markets has many benefits. Open competition will provide network builders the maximum incentive to provide consumers the best quality, service, and price that it is possible to deliver. Competition has been shown time and again to promote innovation and the development of new technologies. As firms seek to win market share, they will develop the most efficient technology possible. This incentive to innovate benefits the entire American economy by spawning a healthy high-tech community of research and entrepreneurship. Finally, competition promotes the first amendment value of information diversity. Consumers benefit from an active “marketplace of ideas,” in which the general public is permitted to hear and voice their political, religious, and economic views. Promoting an open competitive market for all aspects of broadband is thus one of the highest values government policy can promote.
To reach this goal, government must carefully assess its role. Where a vibrant competitive market for broadband already exists, government should forbear from regulating as much as possible. Excessive government regulation on broadband providers and suppliers can burden companies and stifle innovation and investment. Government should instead ensure that the market operates in a way that maximizes the flow of information and encourages competition.
At limited times, however, affirmative government policies may be required to open markets to competitive entry. Specific government action may be especially necessary when the government itself erected barriers to entry by prohibiting competition, or where a firm holds market power or bottleneck control over an essential communications commodity. For instance, transmission services provide the equivalent of “raw material,” without which no information services, applications or uses can be developed or deployed. Government must ensure that the transmission path is open to competing service providers, application developers, content providers and consumers in order to promote an open market in which investment and innovation are stimulated. Otherwise, the uses of the network will be skewed in the interests of those who own the network.
In short, government policy must be limited, targeted, and effective. Government policy should be smart, not smothering.
Congress should also explore new ways to stimulate competition to the duopoly currently held by the cable and telecom companies.11 This is especially important in the wake of the announced mergers of large long distance companies with the two largest Bell companies (i.e., AT&T/SBC and MCI/Verizon). One approach Congress should strongly consider is to guarantee the right of municipalities to provide their own broadband services. Competition from governmental entities could encourage private sector entities to increase deployment, innovate and drive broadband prices down. Indeed, municipal broadband networks provide a business opportunity for small businesses and entrepreneurs. Municipalities that build their own local broadband networks stimulate economic growth by creating jobs, purchasing equipment and services from local businesses, and attracting companies to locate offices in that city.12
Unfortunately, at least 15 states have adopted laws banning or limiting these municipal networks. These laws are often anticompetitive and contrary to the public interest. 13 While the citizens of certain municipalities may decide that taxpayer dollars should not be spent on broadband services, that is a decision that should not be taken away from them by surreptitious legislation that places flat bans on municipal broadband service. Therefore, Congress should preempt these state laws and permit municipalities to serve the needs of their local communities.
Another approach to promoting competition that Congress should consider is codifying a national franchise for new entrants into broadband video services, particularly where those new entrants are authorized to deploy and already deploy a network. Those seeking to compete in the provision of broadband video will be severely delayed if they must seek franchises from 10,000+ local authorities throughout the country. The provision of a national franchise need not deprive localities of any income - the franchise can be conditioned on receipt of the same fee on revenues that cable providers now pay. This fee can be passed down to the localities where competitors seek to provide services. At the same time, Congress should be cognizant of the important role of local authorities in the provision of multi-channel video services, including, but not limited to, ensuring universal access, promoting competition and community media, and protecting public safety.
Until broadband competition matures, policy-makers should also take action to prevent the dominant firms from extending their market power into competitive markets. BellSouth, for instance, is requiring consumers to purchase basic telephone service before the consumer can purchase DSL. The FCC recently upheld this practice. Similarly, some cable companies require consumers to purchase basic cable service to receive their cable modem offerings. These practices make it more difficult, if not impossible, for consumers to purchase stand-alone broadband services.
Furthermore, markets work best if policies are technology-neutral and do not favor one provider over another. To the extent practicable, government policy should seek to promote all technologies and should not artificially favor one technology over another. For instance, any requirement of openness (discussed below) should be applied equally to all broadband networks, regardless of their history or technology.
If the U.S. adopts the right policy framework, emphasizing competition and limited regulation, the growth of broadband technologies can significantly increase and enhance the sharing of knowledge, strengthen our democracy and enhance every individual’s economic empowerment. Our goal should be to ensure that all consumers have access to widespread and competitive broadband services at affordable prices, using a variety of technologies, to permit any commercial or governmental entity to develop new and customer-driven applications and information services, and to allow consumers to enjoy their first amendment rights to have access to and disseminate their own unlimited and uncensored information.
Unfortunately, these objectives are in grave danger. Some recent developments show the country moving in the opposite direction:
Low-income, rural and minority consumers have less access to broadband services than higher-income, urban and white, consumers.2
In most markets, just two providers - the cable company and the telephone company - dominate the provision of broadband services.3
The U.S. ranks 16th worldwide in broadband adoption per 100 inhabitants4, in large part because the prices for broadband services are unaffordably high.5
Unlicensed wireless broadband providers are relegated to a much smaller portion of the electromagnetic spectrum than technology allows.6
Some companies are retaining the authority to build proprietary broadband networks and may restrict or degrade consumers’ access to certain Internet sites or certain applications.7
The FCC has allowed telephone companies to force consumers to buy landline telephone service even when they wish to purchase only broadband service.8
Fifteen states bar or limit municipalities’ ability to build broadband networks.9
These trends demonstrate that the country’s current communications policies are simply inadequate; they provide no assurance that consumers will reap all the benefits of these broadband technologies. Instead, broadband technologies are operating in a policy vacuum. Today, there is no plan to ensure that broadband will be affordable; there are no enforceable rules to ensure that all public broadband networks are open and transparent; there is no plan to maximize the provision of unlicensed wireless broadband services, and there is no guarantee that municipalities have the right to deploy broadband services for their consumers. This policy vacuum creates uncertainty, chills innovation, and depresses both the demand and supply of broadband services and technologies.10
As Congress re-examines the nation’s telecommunications laws, it must do so guided by key principles that will ensure that broadband services are deployed to serve the interests of consumers and the economic interests of the country. Without such principles, there is great danger that any proposed legislation will become a grab bag of special interest benefits, with each corporate interest trying to strengthen its position in the marketplace. Broadband networks must not become closed and under the control of gatekeepers seeking to promote narrow political or corporate agendas. While the legislative process certainly allows companies to advocate for their own interests, it is vitally important that Congress focus first and foremost on the consumer’s interest in broadband networks of the future.
In short, American consumers need a new set of Principles for an Open Broadband Future that will ensure that broadband networks are deployed to maximize consumer welfare. These principles need to address each aspect of the broadband universe - the physical construction of broadband pipes (wireless or wireline), the access to those pipes by consumers, equipment manufacturers, applications developers and content providers, and the use of those pipes to transmit, share and publish information. These principles must walk a fine line: they must be clear and enforceable, so as to stimulate broadband deployment and guarantee consumer access; at the same time they must operate with as light a regulatory touch as possible to avoid burdening network owners with such excessive rules that they lose their incentives to construct these new networks. Setting forth a clear set of principles to guide the development of broadband policy will provide additional certainty to investors, network planners, equipment and application developers, content providers and consumers, so that the broadband future becomes a reality soon.
The overriding goal of these principles can be summarized in one word: openness. If made open and accessible to all Americans, broadband services and applications can ignite new opportunities for innovation, creativity, and economic value for all Americans. Furthermore, safeguarding access to the free flow of information over broadband networks can strengthen our democracy and freedom of expression. Congress’ most important objective should be to ensure that consumers’ rights to access and use broadband networks are preserved and enhanced, to allow the unfettered sharing of knowledge.
This white paper sets out the rationale for the Principles for an Open Broadband Future. Adoption of these principles will promote the deployment of broadband technologies and ensure that they remain open and accessible by the public. These principles should form the foundation of any new effort to re-write the Communications Act in the 109th Congress.
1. Open Competition Among Broadband Providers
*Principles:
a. Every consumer should be able to choose among multiple, competing broadband networks, services, applications and content providers, including municipalities.
b. Government policies should be technology-neutral and should forbear from regulating broadband networks except where necessary to promote competition.*
Every consumer should be able to choose among multiple, competing broadband networks, services, applications and content providers. Eliminating barriers to competitive entry in each of these markets has many benefits. Open competition will provide network builders the maximum incentive to provide consumers the best quality, service, and price that it is possible to deliver. Competition has been shown time and again to promote innovation and the development of new technologies. As firms seek to win market share, they will develop the most efficient technology possible. This incentive to innovate benefits the entire American economy by spawning a healthy high-tech community of research and entrepreneurship. Finally, competition promotes the first amendment value of information diversity. Consumers benefit from an active “marketplace of ideas,” in which the general public is permitted to hear and voice their political, religious, and economic views. Promoting an open competitive market for all aspects of broadband is thus one of the highest values government policy can promote.
To reach this goal, government must carefully assess its role. Where a vibrant competitive market for broadband already exists, government should forbear from regulating as much as possible. Excessive government regulation on broadband providers and suppliers can burden companies and stifle innovation and investment. Government should instead ensure that the market operates in a way that maximizes the flow of information and encourages competition.
At limited times, however, affirmative government policies may be required to open markets to competitive entry. Specific government action may be especially necessary when the government itself erected barriers to entry by prohibiting competition, or where a firm holds market power or bottleneck control over an essential communications commodity. For instance, transmission services provide the equivalent of “raw material,” without which no information services, applications or uses can be developed or deployed. Government must ensure that the transmission path is open to competing service providers, application developers, content providers and consumers in order to promote an open market in which investment and innovation are stimulated. Otherwise, the uses of the network will be skewed in the interests of those who own the network.
In short, government policy must be limited, targeted, and effective. Government policy should be smart, not smothering.
Congress should also explore new ways to stimulate competition to the duopoly currently held by the cable and telecom companies.11 This is especially important in the wake of the announced mergers of large long distance companies with the two largest Bell companies (i.e., AT&T/SBC and MCI/Verizon). One approach Congress should strongly consider is to guarantee the right of municipalities to provide their own broadband services. Competition from governmental entities could encourage private sector entities to increase deployment, innovate and drive broadband prices down. Indeed, municipal broadband networks provide a business opportunity for small businesses and entrepreneurs. Municipalities that build their own local broadband networks stimulate economic growth by creating jobs, purchasing equipment and services from local businesses, and attracting companies to locate offices in that city.12
Unfortunately, at least 15 states have adopted laws banning or limiting these municipal networks. These laws are often anticompetitive and contrary to the public interest. 13 While the citizens of certain municipalities may decide that taxpayer dollars should not be spent on broadband services, that is a decision that should not be taken away from them by surreptitious legislation that places flat bans on municipal broadband service. Therefore, Congress should preempt these state laws and permit municipalities to serve the needs of their local communities.
Another approach to promoting competition that Congress should consider is codifying a national franchise for new entrants into broadband video services, particularly where those new entrants are authorized to deploy and already deploy a network. Those seeking to compete in the provision of broadband video will be severely delayed if they must seek franchises from 10,000+ local authorities throughout the country. The provision of a national franchise need not deprive localities of any income - the franchise can be conditioned on receipt of the same fee on revenues that cable providers now pay. This fee can be passed down to the localities where competitors seek to provide services. At the same time, Congress should be cognizant of the important role of local authorities in the provision of multi-channel video services, including, but not limited to, ensuring universal access, promoting competition and community media, and protecting public safety.
Until broadband competition matures, policy-makers should also take action to prevent the dominant firms from extending their market power into competitive markets. BellSouth, for instance, is requiring consumers to purchase basic telephone service before the consumer can purchase DSL. The FCC recently upheld this practice. Similarly, some cable companies require consumers to purchase basic cable service to receive their cable modem offerings. These practices make it more difficult, if not impossible, for consumers to purchase stand-alone broadband services.
Furthermore, markets work best if policies are technology-neutral and do not favor one provider over another. To the extent practicable, government policy should seek to promote all technologies and should not artificially favor one technology over another. For instance, any requirement of openness (discussed below) should be applied equally to all broadband networks, regardless of their history or technology.
RFID 'Powder' - World's Smallest RFID Tag
The world's smallest and thinnest RFID tags were introduced yesterday by Hitachi. Tiny miracles of miniaturization, these RFID chips (Radio Frequency IDentification chips) measure just 0.05 x 0.05 millimeters.
The previous record-holder, the Hitachi mu-chip, is just 0.4 x 0.4 millimeters. Take a look at the size of the mu-chip RFID tag on a human fingertip.
The previous record-holder, the Hitachi mu-chip, is just 0.4 x 0.4 millimeters. Take a look at the size of the mu-chip RFID tag on a human fingertip.
The new RFID chips have a 128-bit ROM for storing a unique 38 digit number, like their predecessor. Hitachi used semiconductor miniaturization technology and electron beams to write data on the chip substrates to achieve the new, smaller size.
Hitachi's mu-chips are already in production; they were used to prevent ticket forgery at last year's Aichi international technology exposition. RFID 'powder,' on the other hand, is so much smaller that it can easily be incorporated into thin paper, like that used in paper currency and gift certificates.
8051 microcontroller
The Intel 8051 is a Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC) which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies, Maxim Integrated Products (via its Dallas Semiconductor subsidiary), NXP (formerly Philips Semiconductor), Winbond, ST Microelectronics, Silicon Laboratories (formerly Cygnal), Texas Instruments and Cypress Semiconductor. Intel's official designation for the 8051 family of µCs is MCS 51.
Intel's original 8051 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions, identified by a letter "C" in their name, e.g. 80C51, used CMOS technology and were less power-hungry than their NMOS predecessors - this made them eminently more suitable for battery-powered devices.Important features and applications
It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a single package
8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation (hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller)
16-bit address bus - It can access 216 memory locations - 64 kB each of RAM and ROM
On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")
On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory")
Four byte bi-directional input/output port
UART (serial port)
Two 16-bit timers
Two-level interrupt priority
Power saving mode
A particularly useful feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a boolean processing engine which allows bit-level boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and efficiently on internal registers and RAM. This feature helped to cement the 8051's popularity in industrial control applications. Another valued feature is that it has four separate register sets, which can be used to greatly reduce interrupt latency compared to the more common method of storing interrupt context on a stack.
The 8051 UART can be configured to use a 9th data bit that can provide addressable communications in an RS-485 multi-point communications environment.
8051 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second. Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus capable of an even greater number of instructions per second. All SILabs, some Dallas and a few Atmel devices have single cycle cores.
Even higher speed single cycle 8051 cores, in the range 130 MHz to 150 MHz, are now available in internet downloadable form for use in programmable logic devices such as FPGAs, and at many hundreds of MHz in ASICs, for example the netlist from http://www.e8051.com/.
Common features included in modern 8051 based microcontrollers include built-in reset timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators, self-programmable Flash ROM program memory, bootloader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data storage, I²C, SPI, and USB host interfaces, PWM generators, analog comparators, A/D and D/A converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, in-circuit debugging facilities, more interrupt sources, and extra power saving modes.
Programming
Several C compilers are available for the 8051, most of which feature extensions that allow the programmer to specify where each variable should be stored in its six types of memory, and provide access to 8051 specific hardware features such as the multiple register banks and bit manipulation instructions. Other high level languages such as Forth, BASIC, Pascal, PL/M and Modula 2 are available for the 8051, but they are less widely used than C and assembly .
Related processors
The 8051's predecessor, the 8048, was used in the keyboard of the first IBM PC, where it converted keypresses into the serial data stream which is sent to the main unit of the computer. The 8048 and derivatives are still used today for basic model keyboards.
The 8031 was a cut down version of the original Intel 8051 that did not contain any internal program memory (ROM). To use this chip external ROM is to be added that will contain the program that the 8031 will fetch and execute.
The 8052 was an enhanced version of the original Intel 8051 that featured 256 bytes of internal RAM instead of 128 bytes, 8 kB of ROM instead of 4 kB, and a third 16-bit timer. The 8032 had these same features except for the internal ROM program memory. The 8052 and 8032 are largely considered to be obsolete because these features and more are included in nearly all modern 8051 based microcontroller.
Intel's original 8051 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions, identified by a letter "C" in their name, e.g. 80C51, used CMOS technology and were less power-hungry than their NMOS predecessors - this made them eminently more suitable for battery-powered devices.Important features and applications
It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a single package
8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation (hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller)
16-bit address bus - It can access 216 memory locations - 64 kB each of RAM and ROM
On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")
On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory")
Four byte bi-directional input/output port
UART (serial port)
Two 16-bit timers
Two-level interrupt priority
Power saving mode
A particularly useful feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a boolean processing engine which allows bit-level boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and efficiently on internal registers and RAM. This feature helped to cement the 8051's popularity in industrial control applications. Another valued feature is that it has four separate register sets, which can be used to greatly reduce interrupt latency compared to the more common method of storing interrupt context on a stack.
The 8051 UART can be configured to use a 9th data bit that can provide addressable communications in an RS-485 multi-point communications environment.
8051 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second. Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus capable of an even greater number of instructions per second. All SILabs, some Dallas and a few Atmel devices have single cycle cores.
Even higher speed single cycle 8051 cores, in the range 130 MHz to 150 MHz, are now available in internet downloadable form for use in programmable logic devices such as FPGAs, and at many hundreds of MHz in ASICs, for example the netlist from http://www.e8051.com/.
Common features included in modern 8051 based microcontrollers include built-in reset timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators, self-programmable Flash ROM program memory, bootloader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data storage, I²C, SPI, and USB host interfaces, PWM generators, analog comparators, A/D and D/A converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, in-circuit debugging facilities, more interrupt sources, and extra power saving modes.
Programming
Several C compilers are available for the 8051, most of which feature extensions that allow the programmer to specify where each variable should be stored in its six types of memory, and provide access to 8051 specific hardware features such as the multiple register banks and bit manipulation instructions. Other high level languages such as Forth, BASIC, Pascal, PL/M and Modula 2 are available for the 8051, but they are less widely used than C and assembly .
Related processors
The 8051's predecessor, the 8048, was used in the keyboard of the first IBM PC, where it converted keypresses into the serial data stream which is sent to the main unit of the computer. The 8048 and derivatives are still used today for basic model keyboards.
The 8031 was a cut down version of the original Intel 8051 that did not contain any internal program memory (ROM). To use this chip external ROM is to be added that will contain the program that the 8031 will fetch and execute.
The 8052 was an enhanced version of the original Intel 8051 that featured 256 bytes of internal RAM instead of 128 bytes, 8 kB of ROM instead of 4 kB, and a third 16-bit timer. The 8032 had these same features except for the internal ROM program memory. The 8052 and 8032 are largely considered to be obsolete because these features and more are included in nearly all modern 8051 based microcontroller.
BIO DIESEL
Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix: fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labeled B20, while pure biodiesel is referred to as B100. It is common to see B99, since 1% petrodiesel is sufficiently toxic to retard mold. Blends of 20 percent biodiesel with 80 percent petroleum diesel (B20) can generally be used in unmodified diesel engines. Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form (B100), but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Blending B100 with petro diesel may be accomplished by:
Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck
Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of Biodiesel and Petro Diesel)
In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with FKM, which is nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petrodiesel has been used.[3] As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend.In 2005, DaimlerChrysler released Jeep Liberty CRD diesels from the factory into the American market with 5% biodiesel blends, indicating at least partial acceptance of biodiesel as an acceptable diesel fuel additive. In 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized
Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck
Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of Biodiesel and Petro Diesel)
In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with FKM, which is nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petrodiesel has been used.[3] As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend.In 2005, DaimlerChrysler released Jeep Liberty CRD diesels from the factory into the American market with 5% biodiesel blends, indicating at least partial acceptance of biodiesel as an acceptable diesel fuel additive. In 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized
Interesting facts about 1522's Entourage
In the 40 years since 1522 was retired from her original service, many changes have taken place on the nation's rail system. First and foremost is the fact that the infrastructure to service steam locomotives largely disappeared shortly after they were replaced with diesel electrics. Because of this, the SLSTA must bring along the spare parts, special tools and equipment needed to operate the 1522 and the crew of people to use them. All of this is contained in several support cars that usually accompany the 1522 whenever she leaves home. These cars are shown below:
Auxiliary Water Car 1522-A
The 1522's tender holds 11,700 gallons of water and the locomotive evaporates this water at the rate of roughly 100 gallons a mile. Given her constant thirst, keeping 1522 supplied with water is a major concern. Running solely on her own tender's supply, the 1522 would have to stop every 80 miles or so to take water. In her day, this was not a problem - large fill pipes or water tanks were located at station stops and watering the tender could be done quickly and frequently along the engine's route. Since all these watering devices are long gone, the crew must water the engine from fire hydrants alongside the track - usually through a 2-1/2" fire hose. This is a slow process and, to stop every 80 miles to water the train would slow down the train and tie up the railroad. An auxiliary water car was needed to extend water stops out to 120 miles when the locomotive needs to be serviced anyway.
On her first few excursions, the 1522 brought along a single dome tank car on loan from ACF. Then, one of the crew discovered an old Illinois Central auxiliary water car sitting on a siding in Palestine, Illinois. The car, believed to have originally been # A-609, was in sand service for the railroad - hauling sand to its diesel servicing facilities. It looked to have been idle for quite a while. The IC donated the car to the SLSTA and it moved to the museum for its own restoration and return to service.
The tank was removed from the frame and the frame from the trucks. The frame was inverted and thoroughly sandblasted. The coupler pocket on one end was reworked to accommodate a tightlock coupler - the other end already had one. The frame was then set upon a pair of freight car, roller bearing trucks which replaced the original high speed, friction bearing trucks. Meantime, the tank had been taken by truck to a member's shop for interior work. The railroad had removed all the water baffles from the tank and installed sloping sheet steel to funnel the sand to the bottom center of the tank. This sheet was cut back to near the side of the car but can still be seen from the outside as a distinct line on the sides about a third of the way up. A baffling system was then reinstalled in the car to keep the sloshing of the water under control, the inside of the tank sealed, and the tank placed back atop its frame at the museum.
The tank was plumbed with firehose fittings and piping so that it can be filled from ground level with fire hoses. It was also equipped with MU air lines and an electrical line so that, if necessary, a diesel locomotive can be placed behind the water car and operated from the 1522's cab. The completed car was painted and entered service in May of 1990 just in time for the 1990 NRHS Annual Convention and the memorable trip to Newburg, where her extra 13,000 gallons of water came in very handy.
Baggage Car BLACK GOLD
As mentioned, the operation of a steam locomotive on the road requires a considerable amount of tools, support equipment and spare parts to be carried along. In order to house this equipment, the Burlington Northern Railway donated a former Northern Pacific baggage car to St. Louis Steam Train. This Pullman Standard car was built in 1958 as Northern Pacific bag car #220 and it had been in telegraph maintenance on the BN prior to its donation.
Once the car arrived in St. Louis, the SLSTA began yet another restoration effort to get it ready for use. The car body was in very good condition - new diaphragms, bag doors and paint were about the only work needed. The car was lifted by crane and the trucks rolled out for a 40 year teardown inspection and rework. One slightly bent coupler was replaced and the overhauled trucks returned under the car in time for inspection by an Amtrak car inspector. The Black Gold meets all Amtrak mechanical standards but lacks the 480v electrical system to actually run on Amtrak trains. At this time, nothing has been added to the underside of the car. The car was named Black Gold after one of the Frisco passenger trains that 1522 used to pull.
Inside the Black Gold, the crew built a center bulkhead across the middle of the car, dividing it roughly in half. In the 'slime' end, shelving was installed to house the tools, spare parts and other equipment. A special rack was installed to hold the fire hose necessary to water the train. The display steps, built by the BN's Springfield Shops to let people look in the 1522's cab, are also housed inside the car. A small but amazingly powerful electric winch crane is bolted to the floor next to a doorway to assist in the loading of heavy equipment such as drums of oil, the gas fired arc welder and the hotsy power washer.
The other end of the car, which is normally closest to the locomotive while we travel, is the souvenir shop. It has more shelving and tables to house the shirts, hats, coffee cups, postcards and pins which we sell to raise revenue to keep the engine running. Check out our selection of 1522 souvenirs.
Crew Car FIREFLY
In the first few years after 1522's restoration, the SLSTA crew had no crew car of their own. Firehose and lubrication equipment was often carried in someone's truck as it followed the train, and spare parts housed in a box car. The SLSTA began to improve that situation with the purchase of the former Milwaukee Road baggage Dormitory car #1312. This car had been built in 1947 by the Milwaukee's own shops for use on the Olympian Hiawatha between Minneapolis/St. Paul and the west coast. It featured a small baggage section as well as 3 dormitory rooms, a private bedroom for the dining car steward, two toilets and a shower. Each dorm room slept 6 people and they were home to the waiters, cooks and porters on the train. Keeping this car cool in the summer was a steam powered air conditioner which took up a large portion of the A end of the car (the right side on the above photo).
Mechanically, the 1312 was in horrible shape. The steam powered air conditioning system had trapped so much water around it that the whole end of the car had to be rebuilt between the sills and the roof - from the A in SLSTA above all the way to the right end. Dutch doors were added to provide an extra area for the crew to hang out and enjoy the view. The canvas and steel diaphragms were replaced with Amtrak specified rubber tubes. The entire car was sandblasted to remove the armor yellow Milwaukee Road paint scheme and repainted in Frisco passenger blue, white, gray and gold colors.
Inside, the baggage end of the car was largely left untouched with the exception of adding storage bins along the walls and a workbench. Since then, tool boxes and parts cabinets have also been added. The three dormitory rooms were also left in place but the lower bunks were removed in favor of seats and storage cabinets. The crew uses these rooms for storing their personal effects while on the road. The steward's bedroom, shower and toilets were removed along with the steam air conditioner to open up a small lounge area for the crew.
The crew has been especially busy under this car. A 3 cylinder Lister diesel engine/generator set is wedged into one of the car's original battery boxes while the other is used for storage. This generator powers the lights and tools on the car as well as the air compressor which supplies air when the car is not connected to a train. Two other large battery boxes have been added for additional storage of lubricants needed on the road. The car's water tank and supply system were rebuilt and two fuel tanks salvaged from an old cement truck were installed to fuel the diesel. Most important, a Microphor biological system was added to the toilet in the bag area. The trucks were rolled out and, after much effort, were disassembled and rebuilt. These trucks are known as Nystrom trucks after their designer and were unique to the Milwaukee Road. Despite their complexity, the trucks give a very smooth ride. When all was finished, the car was inspected by Amtrak and given the name FIREFLY after one of the passenger trains the 1522 pulled in her days on the Frisco.
Diner Lounge Chouteau Club
Although painted in the Frisco paint scheme to match the rest of our consist, the Chouteau Club is actually owned by a private individual who is also a member of SLSTA. It began life as the Hamilton Club, a parlor car built by Pullman Standard for use on the Canadian National Railway. After a long career in Canada and numerous rebuildings into different configurations, the car was sold off by the railroad into private hands.
Chouteau Club has been thoroughly reworked as part of the required Amtrak 40 year inspection program. To operate on Amtrak trains, cars 40 years or older must have their trucks torn down and rebuilt as well as an extensive inspection of the car itself - 40 years of wear can create a lot of problems. Chouteau Club passed this inspection and has had the necessary electrical and mechanical work done to allow it to operate on Amtrak trains.
Inside, Chouteau Club is set up as a diner lounge. One end of the car has a mini bar area and lounge seating. The other end has 5 dining tables and a side serving table where 20 people can eat at one sitting. A small kitchen with refrigeration and freezer storage is adjacent to the dining area. The car is unusual for a lounge in that it has two rest rooms - normally, these cars had no facilities. It also has a baggage storage rack adjacent to the entry steps, a diesel generator system for independent power and can be fully air conditioned or heated.
Chouteau Club is available for charter and is a great way for groups of 20 or more to travel during the day on Amtrak or private train. If you would like more information on chartering Chouteau Club, please drop an email to SLSTA@aol.com and we'll forward it on to the owner.
Business CarBluebonnet
For many years, a relatively modern business car in faded green and yellow paint sat forlornly on a track at the Museum of Transportation near where 1522 was being restored. With the 1522, her water car, the Firefly and Black Gold restored and operational, the crew began to wonder if this old business car could be brought back to life as well. The car was hauled out of storage and work began.
The car was built in 1948 as the Milwaukee Road business car Milwaukee by the railroad's own shops - just like the Firefly had been. It was used by the senior officers of the railroad for traveling their system to conduct business with customers or meet with railroad employees. The car has several large bedrooms including one specially fitted out for the male secretary who accompanied his boss on these trips. A crew of two, a cook and waiter/porter, prepared meals for the officials in a small kitchen and served them in the adjacent dining room. They lived in a tiny room just off the kitchen. At the rear of the car was a small lounge area with a door that led to the back platform. The riders could pass the time riding in the lounge or, if the weather was nice, open the door and ride on the platform.
With the decline of the Milwaukee Road, the car was eventually sold into private hands and found its way to Gene Love, a wealthy gentleman in the oil industry. He changed the name of the car to Silurian (an age of geological time in which much of what was living became the oil we now use) but otherwise made only minor changes to the car - with one significant exception. Since he wanted to take the car to New York, he had to replace the trucks under the car as the original Nystrom trucks would not clear the obstacles in the New York railroad tunnels. Unfortunately, Mr. Love passed away shortly after the car was ready for his use and his estate donated the car to the Museum.
Over time, the crew has brought the car's systems back on line. The diesel generator, air conditioning, water and kitchen systems were made to work again and the interior thoroughly cleaned. Finally, the car was painted to match the rest of the train and the name changed to Bluebonnet after yet another of the Frisco passenger trains 1522 used to pull.
In the 40 years since 1522 was retired from her original service, many changes have taken place on the nation's rail system. First and foremost is the fact that the infrastructure to service steam locomotives largely disappeared shortly after they were replaced with diesel electrics. Because of this, the SLSTA must bring along the spare parts, special tools and equipment needed to operate the 1522 and the crew of people to use them. All of this is contained in several support cars that usually accompany the 1522 whenever she leaves home. These cars are shown below:
Auxiliary Water Car 1522-A
The 1522's tender holds 11,700 gallons of water and the locomotive evaporates this water at the rate of roughly 100 gallons a mile. Given her constant thirst, keeping 1522 supplied with water is a major concern. Running solely on her own tender's supply, the 1522 would have to stop every 80 miles or so to take water. In her day, this was not a problem - large fill pipes or water tanks were located at station stops and watering the tender could be done quickly and frequently along the engine's route. Since all these watering devices are long gone, the crew must water the engine from fire hydrants alongside the track - usually through a 2-1/2" fire hose. This is a slow process and, to stop every 80 miles to water the train would slow down the train and tie up the railroad. An auxiliary water car was needed to extend water stops out to 120 miles when the locomotive needs to be serviced anyway.
On her first few excursions, the 1522 brought along a single dome tank car on loan from ACF. Then, one of the crew discovered an old Illinois Central auxiliary water car sitting on a siding in Palestine, Illinois. The car, believed to have originally been # A-609, was in sand service for the railroad - hauling sand to its diesel servicing facilities. It looked to have been idle for quite a while. The IC donated the car to the SLSTA and it moved to the museum for its own restoration and return to service.
The tank was removed from the frame and the frame from the trucks. The frame was inverted and thoroughly sandblasted. The coupler pocket on one end was reworked to accommodate a tightlock coupler - the other end already had one. The frame was then set upon a pair of freight car, roller bearing trucks which replaced the original high speed, friction bearing trucks. Meantime, the tank had been taken by truck to a member's shop for interior work. The railroad had removed all the water baffles from the tank and installed sloping sheet steel to funnel the sand to the bottom center of the tank. This sheet was cut back to near the side of the car but can still be seen from the outside as a distinct line on the sides about a third of the way up. A baffling system was then reinstalled in the car to keep the sloshing of the water under control, the inside of the tank sealed, and the tank placed back atop its frame at the museum.
The tank was plumbed with firehose fittings and piping so that it can be filled from ground level with fire hoses. It was also equipped with MU air lines and an electrical line so that, if necessary, a diesel locomotive can be placed behind the water car and operated from the 1522's cab. The completed car was painted and entered service in May of 1990 just in time for the 1990 NRHS Annual Convention and the memorable trip to Newburg, where her extra 13,000 gallons of water came in very handy.
Baggage Car BLACK GOLD
As mentioned, the operation of a steam locomotive on the road requires a considerable amount of tools, support equipment and spare parts to be carried along. In order to house this equipment, the Burlington Northern Railway donated a former Northern Pacific baggage car to St. Louis Steam Train. This Pullman Standard car was built in 1958 as Northern Pacific bag car #220 and it had been in telegraph maintenance on the BN prior to its donation.
Once the car arrived in St. Louis, the SLSTA began yet another restoration effort to get it ready for use. The car body was in very good condition - new diaphragms, bag doors and paint were about the only work needed. The car was lifted by crane and the trucks rolled out for a 40 year teardown inspection and rework. One slightly bent coupler was replaced and the overhauled trucks returned under the car in time for inspection by an Amtrak car inspector. The Black Gold meets all Amtrak mechanical standards but lacks the 480v electrical system to actually run on Amtrak trains. At this time, nothing has been added to the underside of the car. The car was named Black Gold after one of the Frisco passenger trains that 1522 used to pull.
Inside the Black Gold, the crew built a center bulkhead across the middle of the car, dividing it roughly in half. In the 'slime' end, shelving was installed to house the tools, spare parts and other equipment. A special rack was installed to hold the fire hose necessary to water the train. The display steps, built by the BN's Springfield Shops to let people look in the 1522's cab, are also housed inside the car. A small but amazingly powerful electric winch crane is bolted to the floor next to a doorway to assist in the loading of heavy equipment such as drums of oil, the gas fired arc welder and the hotsy power washer.
The other end of the car, which is normally closest to the locomotive while we travel, is the souvenir shop. It has more shelving and tables to house the shirts, hats, coffee cups, postcards and pins which we sell to raise revenue to keep the engine running. Check out our selection of 1522 souvenirs.
Crew Car FIREFLY
In the first few years after 1522's restoration, the SLSTA crew had no crew car of their own. Firehose and lubrication equipment was often carried in someone's truck as it followed the train, and spare parts housed in a box car. The SLSTA began to improve that situation with the purchase of the former Milwaukee Road baggage Dormitory car #1312. This car had been built in 1947 by the Milwaukee's own shops for use on the Olympian Hiawatha between Minneapolis/St. Paul and the west coast. It featured a small baggage section as well as 3 dormitory rooms, a private bedroom for the dining car steward, two toilets and a shower. Each dorm room slept 6 people and they were home to the waiters, cooks and porters on the train. Keeping this car cool in the summer was a steam powered air conditioner which took up a large portion of the A end of the car (the right side on the above photo).
Mechanically, the 1312 was in horrible shape. The steam powered air conditioning system had trapped so much water around it that the whole end of the car had to be rebuilt between the sills and the roof - from the A in SLSTA above all the way to the right end. Dutch doors were added to provide an extra area for the crew to hang out and enjoy the view. The canvas and steel diaphragms were replaced with Amtrak specified rubber tubes. The entire car was sandblasted to remove the armor yellow Milwaukee Road paint scheme and repainted in Frisco passenger blue, white, gray and gold colors.
Inside, the baggage end of the car was largely left untouched with the exception of adding storage bins along the walls and a workbench. Since then, tool boxes and parts cabinets have also been added. The three dormitory rooms were also left in place but the lower bunks were removed in favor of seats and storage cabinets. The crew uses these rooms for storing their personal effects while on the road. The steward's bedroom, shower and toilets were removed along with the steam air conditioner to open up a small lounge area for the crew.
The crew has been especially busy under this car. A 3 cylinder Lister diesel engine/generator set is wedged into one of the car's original battery boxes while the other is used for storage. This generator powers the lights and tools on the car as well as the air compressor which supplies air when the car is not connected to a train. Two other large battery boxes have been added for additional storage of lubricants needed on the road. The car's water tank and supply system were rebuilt and two fuel tanks salvaged from an old cement truck were installed to fuel the diesel. Most important, a Microphor biological system was added to the toilet in the bag area. The trucks were rolled out and, after much effort, were disassembled and rebuilt. These trucks are known as Nystrom trucks after their designer and were unique to the Milwaukee Road. Despite their complexity, the trucks give a very smooth ride. When all was finished, the car was inspected by Amtrak and given the name FIREFLY after one of the passenger trains the 1522 pulled in her days on the Frisco.
Diner Lounge Chouteau Club
Although painted in the Frisco paint scheme to match the rest of our consist, the Chouteau Club is actually owned by a private individual who is also a member of SLSTA. It began life as the Hamilton Club, a parlor car built by Pullman Standard for use on the Canadian National Railway. After a long career in Canada and numerous rebuildings into different configurations, the car was sold off by the railroad into private hands.
Chouteau Club has been thoroughly reworked as part of the required Amtrak 40 year inspection program. To operate on Amtrak trains, cars 40 years or older must have their trucks torn down and rebuilt as well as an extensive inspection of the car itself - 40 years of wear can create a lot of problems. Chouteau Club passed this inspection and has had the necessary electrical and mechanical work done to allow it to operate on Amtrak trains.
Inside, Chouteau Club is set up as a diner lounge. One end of the car has a mini bar area and lounge seating. The other end has 5 dining tables and a side serving table where 20 people can eat at one sitting. A small kitchen with refrigeration and freezer storage is adjacent to the dining area. The car is unusual for a lounge in that it has two rest rooms - normally, these cars had no facilities. It also has a baggage storage rack adjacent to the entry steps, a diesel generator system for independent power and can be fully air conditioned or heated.
Chouteau Club is available for charter and is a great way for groups of 20 or more to travel during the day on Amtrak or private train. If you would like more information on chartering Chouteau Club, please drop an email to SLSTA@aol.com and we'll forward it on to the owner.
Business CarBluebonnet
For many years, a relatively modern business car in faded green and yellow paint sat forlornly on a track at the Museum of Transportation near where 1522 was being restored. With the 1522, her water car, the Firefly and Black Gold restored and operational, the crew began to wonder if this old business car could be brought back to life as well. The car was hauled out of storage and work began.
The car was built in 1948 as the Milwaukee Road business car Milwaukee by the railroad's own shops - just like the Firefly had been. It was used by the senior officers of the railroad for traveling their system to conduct business with customers or meet with railroad employees. The car has several large bedrooms including one specially fitted out for the male secretary who accompanied his boss on these trips. A crew of two, a cook and waiter/porter, prepared meals for the officials in a small kitchen and served them in the adjacent dining room. They lived in a tiny room just off the kitchen. At the rear of the car was a small lounge area with a door that led to the back platform. The riders could pass the time riding in the lounge or, if the weather was nice, open the door and ride on the platform.
With the decline of the Milwaukee Road, the car was eventually sold into private hands and found its way to Gene Love, a wealthy gentleman in the oil industry. He changed the name of the car to Silurian (an age of geological time in which much of what was living became the oil we now use) but otherwise made only minor changes to the car - with one significant exception. Since he wanted to take the car to New York, he had to replace the trucks under the car as the original Nystrom trucks would not clear the obstacles in the New York railroad tunnels. Unfortunately, Mr. Love passed away shortly after the car was ready for his use and his estate donated the car to the Museum.
Over time, the crew has brought the car's systems back on line. The diesel generator, air conditioning, water and kitchen systems were made to work again and the interior thoroughly cleaned. Finally, the car was painted to match the rest of the train and the name changed to Bluebonnet after yet another of the Frisco passenger trains 1522 used to pull.
resistance: New superconductors contain alternating layers of iron arsenide (orange and red) and rare earth metal oxides (blue and gray) doped with fluorine (green). Iron arsenide compounds become superconducting at relatively high temperatures of 55 K, and researchers are now beginning to decipher their superconducting mechanism. A new class of high-temperature superconductors, discovered earlier this year, behaves very differently than previously known copper-oxygen superconductors do. Instead, the new materials seem to follow a superconductivity mechanism found previously only in materials that are superconducting at very low temperatures, Chia-Ling Chien and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins University report in an online Nature paper.
History of Battery Operated devices
In the late 19th century, the realization that electricity could be coaxed to light up a bulb prompted a mad dash to determine the best way to distribute it. At the head of the pack was inventor Nikola Tesla, who had a grand scheme to beam electricity around the world. Having difficulty imagining a vast infrastructure of wires extending into every city, building, and room, Tesla figured that wireless was the way to go. He drew up plans for a tower, about 57 meters tall, that he claimed would transmit power to points kilometers away, and even started to build one on Long Island. Though his team did some tests, funding ran out before the tower was completed. The promise of airborne power faded rapidly as the industrial world proved willing to wire up.
Then, a few years ago, Marin Soljačić, an assistant professor of physics at MIT, was dragged out of bed by the insistent beeping of a cell phone. "This one didn't want to stop until you plugged it in for charging," says Soljačić. In his exhausted state, he wished the phone would just begin charging itself as soon as it was brought into the house.
So Soljačić started searching for ways to transmit power wirelessly. Instead of pursuing a long-distance scheme like Tesla's, he decided to look for midrange power transmission methods that could charge--or even power--portable devices such as cell phones, PDAs, and laptops. He considered using radio waves, which effectively send information through the air, but found that most of their energy would be lost in space. More-targeted methods like lasers require a clear line of sight--and could have harmful effects on anything in their way. So Soljačić sought a method that was both efficient--able to directly power receivers without dissipating energy to the surroundings--and safe.
He eventually landed on the phenomenon of resonant coupling, in which two objects tuned to the same frequency exchange energy strongly but interact only weakly with other objects. A classic example is a set of wine glasses, each filled to a different level so that it vibrates at a different sound frequency. If a singer hits a pitch that matches the frequency of one glass, the glass might absorb so much acoustic energy that it will shatter; the other glasses remain unaffected.
Soljačić found magnetic resonance a promising means of electricity transfer because magnetic fields travel freely through air yet have little effect on the environment or, at the appropriate frequencies, on living beings. Working with MIT physics professors John Joannopoulos and Peter Fisher and three students, he devised a simple setup that wirelessly powered a 60-watt light bulb.
The researchers built two resonant copper coils and hung them from the ceiling, about two meters apart. When they plugged one coil into the wall, alternating current flowed through it, creating a magnetic field. The second coil, tuned to the same frequency and hooked to a light bulb, resonated with the magnetic field, generating an electric current that lit up the bulb--even with a thin wall between the coils.
So far, the most effective setup consists of 60-centimeter copper coils and a 10-megahertz magnetic field; this transfers power over a distance of two meters with about 50 percent efficiency. The team is looking at silver and other materials to decrease coil size and boost efficiency. "While ideally it would be nice to have efficiencies at 100 percent, realistically, 70 to 80 percent could be possible for a typical application," says Soljačić.
Wireless LightMarin Soljačić and colleagues used magnetic resonance coupling to power a 60-watt light bulb. Tuned to the same frequency, two 60-centimeter copper coils can transmit electricity over a distance of two meters, through the air and around an obstacle.
1. Resonant copper coil attached to frequency converter and plugged into outlet2. Wall outlet3. Obstacle4. Resonant copper coil attached to light bulb
Credit: Bryan Christie Design
Other means of recharging batteries without cords are emerging. Startups such as Powercast, Fulton Innovation, and WildCharge have begun marketing adapters and pads that allow consumers to wirelessly recharge cell phones, MP3 players, and other devices at home or, in some cases, in the car. But Soljačić's technique differs from these approaches in that it might one day enable devices to recharge automatically, without the use of pads, whenever they come within range of a wireless transmitter.
The MIT work has attracted the attention of consumer-electronics companies and the auto industry. The U.S. Department of Defense, which is funding the research, hopes it will also give soldiers a way to automatically recharge batteries. However, Soljačić remains tight-lipped about possible industry collaborations.
"In today's battery-operated world, there are so many potential applications where this might be useful,"
Then, a few years ago, Marin Soljačić, an assistant professor of physics at MIT, was dragged out of bed by the insistent beeping of a cell phone. "This one didn't want to stop until you plugged it in for charging," says Soljačić. In his exhausted state, he wished the phone would just begin charging itself as soon as it was brought into the house.
So Soljačić started searching for ways to transmit power wirelessly. Instead of pursuing a long-distance scheme like Tesla's, he decided to look for midrange power transmission methods that could charge--or even power--portable devices such as cell phones, PDAs, and laptops. He considered using radio waves, which effectively send information through the air, but found that most of their energy would be lost in space. More-targeted methods like lasers require a clear line of sight--and could have harmful effects on anything in their way. So Soljačić sought a method that was both efficient--able to directly power receivers without dissipating energy to the surroundings--and safe.
He eventually landed on the phenomenon of resonant coupling, in which two objects tuned to the same frequency exchange energy strongly but interact only weakly with other objects. A classic example is a set of wine glasses, each filled to a different level so that it vibrates at a different sound frequency. If a singer hits a pitch that matches the frequency of one glass, the glass might absorb so much acoustic energy that it will shatter; the other glasses remain unaffected.
Soljačić found magnetic resonance a promising means of electricity transfer because magnetic fields travel freely through air yet have little effect on the environment or, at the appropriate frequencies, on living beings. Working with MIT physics professors John Joannopoulos and Peter Fisher and three students, he devised a simple setup that wirelessly powered a 60-watt light bulb.
The researchers built two resonant copper coils and hung them from the ceiling, about two meters apart. When they plugged one coil into the wall, alternating current flowed through it, creating a magnetic field. The second coil, tuned to the same frequency and hooked to a light bulb, resonated with the magnetic field, generating an electric current that lit up the bulb--even with a thin wall between the coils.
So far, the most effective setup consists of 60-centimeter copper coils and a 10-megahertz magnetic field; this transfers power over a distance of two meters with about 50 percent efficiency. The team is looking at silver and other materials to decrease coil size and boost efficiency. "While ideally it would be nice to have efficiencies at 100 percent, realistically, 70 to 80 percent could be possible for a typical application," says Soljačić.
Wireless LightMarin Soljačić and colleagues used magnetic resonance coupling to power a 60-watt light bulb. Tuned to the same frequency, two 60-centimeter copper coils can transmit electricity over a distance of two meters, through the air and around an obstacle.
1. Resonant copper coil attached to frequency converter and plugged into outlet2. Wall outlet3. Obstacle4. Resonant copper coil attached to light bulb
Credit: Bryan Christie Design
Other means of recharging batteries without cords are emerging. Startups such as Powercast, Fulton Innovation, and WildCharge have begun marketing adapters and pads that allow consumers to wirelessly recharge cell phones, MP3 players, and other devices at home or, in some cases, in the car. But Soljačić's technique differs from these approaches in that it might one day enable devices to recharge automatically, without the use of pads, whenever they come within range of a wireless transmitter.
The MIT work has attracted the attention of consumer-electronics companies and the auto industry. The U.S. Department of Defense, which is funding the research, hopes it will also give soldiers a way to automatically recharge batteries. However, Soljačić remains tight-lipped about possible industry collaborations.
"In today's battery-operated world, there are so many potential applications where this might be useful,"
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